潘锦棠;许晓丽;

• 1:中国人民大学劳动人事学院

摘要(Abstract)：

自"福利国家悖论"提出后,西方学术界对公共家庭政策的悖论效应进行了大量的理论阐述和实证检验。"福利国家悖论"揭示了父母育儿休假、公共儿童照料服务等家庭政策虽能促进女性劳动参与,但却会通过强化雇主对女性的统计性歧视、妨碍女性自身的人力资本积累以及将女性吸引到服务类岗位等机制阻碍女性的职业发展与收入提升,进而深化男女两性的职业隔离和收入差距。然而目前已有的那些基于国际比较视角的实证检验结果却存在不一致,支持与反对的证据都存在,因此,中国在积极发展"二孩生育政策配套措施"的背景下,选择家庭政策工具时需要全面审慎的考虑。

关键词(KeyWords)： 公共家庭政策;女性劳动参与;女性劳动成就;两性就业平等;福利国家悖论

Abstract:

Keywords:

基金项目(Foundation): 国家社科基金项目(16CRK004)

作者(Authors): 潘锦棠;许晓丽;

DOI: 10.16366/j.cnki.1000-2359.2020.06.010

参考文献(References)：

• (1)Eydal G B.,Rostgaard T.Handbook of Family Policy.UK:Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd,2018.
• (2)Daly M.,Ferragina E.Family policy in high-income countries:Five decades of development.Journal of European Social Policy,2018,28(3):255-270.
• (3)Borchorst A.,Siim B..Woman-friendly policies and state feminism:Theorizing scandinavian gender equality.Feminist Theory,2008,9(2):207-224.
• (4)杨菊华:《 论政府在托育服务体系供给侧改革中的职能定位》,《国家行政学院学报》,2018年第 3期,第89-96页。
• (5)杨利春,陈远:《建设生育友好型社会是中国人口发展的战略选择:“全面两孩政策与生育友好型社会建设”专题研讨会综述》,《中国人口科学》,2017年第4期,第121-125页。
• (6)Gauthier A H..The impact of family policies on fertility in industrialized countries:A review of the literature.Population Research and Policy Review,2007,26(3),323-346.
• (7)Hegewisch A.,Gornick J C..The impact of work-family policies on women’s employment:a review of research from OECD countries.Community Work & Family,2011,14(2):119-138.
• (8)Budig M J.,Misra J.,Boeckmann I.Work-Family Policy Trade-Offs for Mothers’Unpacking the Cross-National Variation in Motherhood Earnings Penalties.Work and Occupations,2016,43(2):119-177.
• (9)Glass J.,Simon R W.,Andersson M A..Parenthood and Happiness:Effects of Work-Family Reconciliation Policies in 22 OECD Countries.American Journal of Sociology,2016,122(3),886-929.
• (10)Ferragina E..Family policy and women’s employment outcomes in 45 high-income countries:A systematic qualitative review of 238 comparative and national studies.Social Policy & Administration,2020,Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1111/spol.12584.
• (11)Mandel H.,Semyonov M..A Welfare State Paradox:State Interventions and Women’s Employment Opportunities in 22 Countries.American Journal of Sociology,2006,111(6):1910-1942.
• (12)Mandel H.,Semyonov M..Family Policies,Wage Structures,and Gender Gaps:Sources of Earnings Inequality in 20 Countries.American Sociological Review,2005,70(6):949-967.
• (13)Mandel H..Winners and Losers:The consequences of welfare state policies for gender wage inequality.European sociological review,2012,28(2):241-262.
• (14)Korpi W.,Ferrarini T.,Englund S..Women’s opportunities under different constellations of family policies in western countries:Inequality tradeoffs re-examined.Social Politics International Studies in Gender State & Society,2013,20(1):1-40.
• (15)Mun E.,Jung J..Policy Generosity ,Employer Heterogeneity ,and Women’s Employment Opportunities The Welfare State Paradox Reexamined.American Sociological Review,2018,83(3):508-535.
• (16)Ferragina E..Family policy and women’s employment outcomes in 45 high-income countries:A systematic qualitative review of 238 comparative and national studies.Social Policy & Administration,2020,Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1111/spol.12584.
• (17)Ruhm C J..The economic consequences of parental leave mandates:Lessons from Europe.Quarterly Journal of Economics,1998,113(1):285-317.
• (18)Sch?nberg U.,Ludsteck J..Expansions in Maternity Leave Coverage and Mothers’ Labor Market Outcomes after Childbirth.Journal of Labor Economics,2014,32(3):469-505.
• (19)Olivetti C.,Petrongolo B..The economic consequences of family policies:lessons from a century of legislation in high-income countries.Journal of Economic Perspectives,2017,31(1):205-230.
• (20)Baum II C L..The effect of state maternity leave legislation and the 1993 Family and Medical Leave Act on employment and wages.Labour Economics,2003,(10):573-596.
• (21)潘锦棠:《生育社会保险中的女性利益、企业利益和国家利益》,《 浙江学刊》,2001年第6期,第110-114页。
• (22)Mandel H.,Semyonov M..A Welfare State Paradox:State Interventions and Women’s Employment Opportunities in 22 Countries.American Journal of Sociology,2006,111(6):1910-1942.
• (23)Mun E.,Jung J..Policy Generosity,Employer Heterogeneity,and Women’s Employment Opportunities The Welfare State Paradox Reexamine.American Sociological Review,2018,83(3):508-535.
• (24)曼德尔和西莫诺夫指出,女性对公共服务部门的偏好与雇主进行统计性歧视这两方面并不是相互独立的——在雇主不愿晋升女性的劳动力市场中,女性会缺乏动力去与男性竞争高等级职位。此时,公共服务部门的拉动会进一步使女性远离这些职位。
• (25)Mandel H.,Semyonov M..Family Policies,Wage Structures,and Gender Gaps:Sources of Earnings Inequality in 20 Countries.American Sociological Review,2005,70(6):949-967.
• (26)Abendroth A-K.,Maas I.,van der Lippe T..Human capital and the gender gap in authority in european countries.European Sociological Review,2013,2(2):261-273
• (27)Akgunduz Y E.,Plantenga J..Labour market effects of parental leave in Europe.Cambridge Journal of Economics,2013,37(4):845-862.
• (28)Estévez-Abe M..Gender Bias in Skills and Social Policies:The varieties of capitalism perspective on sex segregation.Social Politics:International Studies in Gender State & Society,2005,12(2):180-215.
• (29)两性劳动技能偏差机制的核心是,相较于可转移程度较高的通用劳动技能,企业特定劳动技能有更强的性别偏见。具体的是,由于女性相比男性更可能会因为生育和家庭事务中断工作,相伴的技能投资风险(诸如生育期间被解雇、收入减少、技能贬值以及错失技能提升的良机等)会使女性自身不愿意投资可转移程度较低的企业特定技能。与此同时,雇主也会因女员工的工作中断而面临较高的技能投资风险,因此相对不愿给女性提供培训。在这两个机制的作用下,相较于男性,女性更可能会获得通用技能而非企业特定技能,由此产生劳动技能上的性别偏差。
• (30)Abendroth A K.,Huffman M L.,Treas J..The parity penalty in life course perspective:Motherhood and occupational status in 13 european countries.American Sociological Review,2014,79(5):993-1014.
• (31)Pettit B.,Hook J L..Gendered tradeoffs:Family,social policy,and economic inequality in twenty-one countries.New York:Russell Sage,2009.
• (32)Gr?nlund A.,Magnusson C..Family-friendly policies and women’s wages-is there a trade-off Skill investments,occupational segregation and the gender pay gap in Germany,Sweden and the UK.European Societies,2016,18(1):1-23.
• (33)Brady D.,Blome A.,Kmec J A..Work-family reconciliation policies and women’s and mothers’ labor market outcomes in rich democracies.Socio-Economic Review,2020,18(1),125-161.
• (34)Korpi W.,Ferrarini T.,Englund S..Women’s opportunities under different constellations of family policies in western countries:Inequality tradeoffs re-examined.Social Politics International Studies in Gender State & Society,2013,20(1):1-40
• (35)Mandel H..Rethinking the paradox:tradeoffs in work-family policy and patterns of gender inequality.Community,Work & Family,2011,14(2):159-176.
• (36)Hegewisch A.,Gornick JC..The impact of work-family policies on women’s employment:A review of research from OECD countries.Community,Work & Family,2011,14(2):119-138.
• (37)Gornick J C.,Jacobs J A..Gender,the welfare state,and public employment:A comparative study of seven industrialized countries.American Sociological Review,1998,63(5),688-710.
• (38)Thevenon O..Do institutional complementarities foster female labour force participation?.Journal of Institutional Economics,2016,12(2):471-497.
• (39)Boeckmann I.,Misra J.,Budig M J..Cultural and Institutional Factors Shaping Mothers’ Employment and Working Hours in Postindustrial Countries.Social Forces,2015,93(4):1301-1333.
• (40)Henau J D.,Meulders D.,O’Dorchai S..Maybe Baby:Comparing Partnered Women’s Employment and Child Policies in the EU-15.Feminist Economics,2010,16(1):43-77.
• (41)Nieuwenhuis R.,Need A.,van der Kolk H..Institutional and demographic explanations of women’s employment in 18 OECD countries,1975-1999.Journal of marriage & family,2012,74(3),614-630.
• (42)曼德尔等所关注的公共家庭政策有母亲育儿休假和公共儿童照料政策,分别用折算后的全薪休假天数(带薪天数乘以休假期间的工资替代率)、公共儿童照料机构中学前儿童的入托比来测量。此外,他还关注了卫生、教育和福利等公共服务部门的就业规模。基于这三方面的数据,曼德尔等进行因子分析构建了“福利国家干预”的综合指标(Welfare State Intervention Index)。该综合指标反映了给育儿女职工提供的总体保障,超越了任何的单一政策,与沃尔特·科尔皮(Walter Korpi)等所强调的家庭政策集合(Family Policy Constellation)相类似。
• (43)Mandel H.,Semyonov M..Family Policies,Wage Structures,and Gender Gaps:Sources of Earnings Inequality in 20 Countries.American Sociological Review,2005,70(6):949-967.
• (44)Estévez-Abe M..Gendering the varieties of capitalism:A study of occupational segregation by sex in advanced industrial societies.World Politics,2006,59(1):155-175.
• (45)Akgunduz Y E.,Plantenga J..Labour market effects of parental leave in Europe.Cambridge Journal of Economics,2013,37(4):845-862.
• (46)科尔皮等用“现金或者减税形式的儿童津贴(Child Allowances)”、“针对3岁以上学前儿童的非全日制公共日间照料服务”、“给在家育儿者提供的现金津贴”(Home Care Allowance)、“因扶养无工作的配偶而获得的减税”(Marriage Subsidies)来测量“支持传统性别分工家庭模式”维度;用“针对0-2岁儿童的公共日间照料服务”、“针对3岁以上儿童的全日制公共日间照料服务”、“收入关联型的育儿休假保险项目(Parental Leave Insurance)”来测量“支持双职工家庭模式”维度;用“由父母共享的带薪育儿休假时长”、“父亲专属的带薪育儿休假时长”来测量“支持两性分担家庭照料”维度。在实证分析中,他将后两个维度合并为“支持双职工-双照料家庭模式”维度。
• (47)Mandel H.,Semyonov M..A Welfare State Paradox:State Interventions and Women’s Employment Opportunities in 22 Countries.American Journal of Sociology,2006,111(6):1910-1942.
• (48)Mandel H..Configurations of gender inequality:the consequences of ideology and public policy.The British Journal of Sociology,2009,60(4):693-719.
• (49)Mandel H..Rethinking the paradox:tradeoffs in work-family policy and patterns of gender inequality.Community,Work & Family,2011,14(2):159-176.
• (50)包括低学历低收入群体的性别工资差距、低收入群体中的女性比例、女性相对男性在低技能职业中的比例、单身母亲就业率、单身父母贫困率和无就业单身父母贫困率。
• (51)Olsen K M..Employment Trade-offs under different family policy constellations.Work,Employment and Society,2020,Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017019892827.
• (52)Abendroth A-K.,Maas I.,van der Lippe T..Human capital and the Gender gap in authority in European Countries.European Sociological Review,2013,2(2):261-273.
• (53)布雷迪等不仅分析了带薪育儿假和公共儿童照料覆盖面对女性就业结果(诸如就业、全职就业、收入、全职收入、成为一名管理者、成为一名有着丰厚待遇的管理者等)的影响,还直接探索了家庭政策对两性在这些就业结果上的差异的影响。
• (54)Brady D.,Blome A.,Kmec J A..Work-family reconciliation policies and women’s and mothers’ labor market outcomes in rich democracies.Socio-Economic Review,2020,18(1),125-161.
• (55)Waldfogel J..The Effects of Children on Women’s Wages.American Sociological Review,1997,62:209-217.
• (56)Budig M.,England P..The Wage Penalty for Motherhood.American Sociological Review,2001,66:204-225.
• (57)Sigle-Rushton W.,Waldfogel J..Motherhood and women’s earnings in Anglo-American,continental European,and Nordic countries.Feminist Economics,2007,13:55-91.
• (58)Misra J.,Budig M J.,Moller S..Reconciliation policies and the effects of motherhood on employment,earnings and poverty.Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis Research & Practice,2007,9(2):135-155.
• (59)Halldén K.,Levanon A.,Kricheli-Katz,T..Does the motherhood wage penalty differ by individual skill and country family policy?A longitudinal study of ten European countries.Social Politics,2016,23(3):363-388.
• (60)Budig M.,Bckmann I.,Misra J..The motherhood penalty in cross-national perspective:the importance of work-family policies and cultural attitudes.Social Politics,2012,19(2):163-193.
• (61)Budig M J ,Misra J ,Boeckmann I .(2016).Work-family policy trade-offs for mothers’ Unpacking the cross-national variation in motherhood earnings penalties.Work and Occupations,2016,43(2):119-177.
• (62)Abendroth A K.,Huffman M L.,Treas J..The parity penalty in life course Perspective:Motherhood and occupational status in 13 European countries.American Sociological Review,2014,79(5):993-1014.
• (63)Mun E.,Brinton M C..Revisiting the welfare state paradox:A firm-Level analysis from Japan.Research in Social Stratification and Mobility,2017,47:33-43.
• (64)日本政府1992年出台的《儿童照料休假法案》(Childcare Leave Act)要求企业给女职工提供1年育儿休假的选择。不过接下来,日本政府则转向了激励型的干预方式,特别是2005年的立法激励雇主积极自主地建设女性友好的工作场所。
• (65)科尔皮等围绕各国在两性就业不平等结果上的比较似乎挑战了“福利国家悖论”观点。比如,除去个体层面因素的影响后,北欧国家与其他国家在女性获得高收入几率上没有重大差异。此外,北欧国家中高收入群体的两性工资差异以及待遇丰厚的管理类职位上的两性隔离都与典型的市场导向型国家大致相似。
• (66)Gr?nlund A.,Magnusson C..Family-friendly policies and women’s wages-is there a trade-off Skill investments,occupational segregation and the gender pay gap in Germany,Sweden and the UK.European Societies,2016,18(1):1-23.
• (67)沈洁:《 日本性别政策演进分析:从“男性养家”迈向工作与生活平衡》,《妇女研究论丛》,2019年第6期,第58-67页。
• (68)Seeleib-Kaiser,M..The End of the Conservative German Welfare State Model.Social Policy and Administration,2016,50(2):219-240.